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| A curious Cusker Ranch cow. |
In 2006, the United States dairy industry produced over 20 billion gallons of milk1. This milk is pasteurized and sold, or transformed into cheese, butter, cream and ice cream for consumers in the U.S. and around the world. With the rise of technology at the end of the 19th century, dairy production was able to expand past regional dairy consumption to a nationwide industry2. Many people believe dairy farms include an agrarian ideal of open grassy pastures, rolling hills, grazing cows and red barns. Unfortunately, the growth of the dairy industry over the past century has contributed to the demise of these ideal farming practices. Today, most of our milk is produced in large industrial facilities that hardly resemble one's vision of a farm. However, the past few years have seen a hopeful and fast-growing trend toward organic and sustainable dairy production.
Birth of the U.S. Dairy Industry
Cows were brought to the Americas by way of the first settlers in the Jamestown Colony3. Through the years, as cities developed and expanded, many dairies were naturally located central to populations, within filthy city centers. Overcrowded and unkempt barns held up to 4,000 cows which were fed waste residue from grains used in nearby liquor distilleries and breweries.4 These conditions, coupled with lack of refrigeration, poor human sanitation, vermin and insect infestations, made milk a risky and unhealthy drink. The milk produced by these urban dairies was known as "swill milk," which would later be referred to by historians as "white poison."5
By the mid-1800's, some of the first reformers to call for stricter standards in the dairy industry were anti-alcohol temperance groups because of the close relationship between alcohol production and swill dairies, as well as doctors who abhorred city dairy conditions6. Early reformers pushed for the importation of "country milk" into cities, taking advantage of newly established railroads and other transportation improvements. Still, without refrigeration and because of improper handling by transport workers, it was no healthier than swill milk7.
Pasteurization and Centralization
Towards the end of the 19th century, with the widely accepted invention of pasteurization, the quality, safety and shelf life of milk for consumers greatly increased8. As local governments pushed for the pasteurization of all milk, many small dairies found themselves unable to compete, pushed out of business or sold off to larger operations.
At a time when many of the largest corporate trusts were broken up by the federal government, the dairy industry consolidated into fewer hands with government encouragement. As the director of the U.S. Public Health Service during Theodore Roosevelt's administration put it:
"The day of the small dairy man is doomed ... the production of milk will gradually and inevitably drift into the hands of larger dairies where economic conditions justify competent assistants, skilled supervision, and efficient equipment.... [The] large contractor ... is a power for great good in the milk industry ... It is evidently much easier to control, educate, and regulate a few large contractors than hundreds of small independent dealers."9
As pasteurization laws passed in local districts, large processors, with the ability to afford expensive pasteurization equipment, scaled-up production and distribution over wide geographical areas, replacing small dairies. Milwaukee, for example, passed its pasteurization law in 1914, and within six years the number of milk distributors serving the area fell from 200 to 32. By the 1930s, just two distribution companies would control distribution for a third of all milk produced in New England.10
Corporate Growth and the Demise of Small Dairies
Today, after nearly a century of growth and consolidation in the dairy industry, much of the milk supply is processed, priced and distributed by a handful of multi-billion dollar firms - many of which are European owned11. These corporations buy 80% of milk produced in the U.S.12, and as a result, wield enormous power over the way milk is made and what it costs, leaving dairy farmers little control over their livelihood or product.
In 1980 there were 117,313 farm members in milk cooperatives, down from 561,065 in 196413. 2004 figures indicate a 75% decline in the number of U.S. dairy farms since 198014. As the dairy industry grows, this number continues to drop as small farms die out and large industrial dairy factories expand herd sizes and milk production. In 2005, overall U.S. dairy milk production reached 77.5 tons; by 2006, overall U.S. dairy milk production reached 82.3 tons15. Small farms, those with fewer than 100 cows, dwindle, while farms with over 500 cows continue to grow16. Startlingly, about half of the U.S. milk is supplied by just 3.7% of these mega-dairy farms17.
Most of the various brands of milk found in a grocery's dairy section are owned by 7 prominent multinational dairy corporations18. For example, Dean Foods, the largest dairy processor and distributor in the U.S., encompasses 40 dairy brands, including 3 organic brands19. It controls 100 of the processing plants throughout the US and Europe20, making over $10 billion in revenue from its dairy division.
While Dean Food's statistics startle, pick up a carton of milk, stick of butter or wedge of cheese at any supermarket in the world, and a consumer is hard pressed to know what cow it came from - or even what continent that cow lived on. With modern refrigeration and transportation technology, dairy foods can travel thousands of miles before reaching the consumer's refrigerator. The world's top dairy products exporter, Fronterra, is based in the remote country of New Zealand, distributing to 140 countries, including North America, Europe, Saudi Arabia, and throughout Asia21.
Industrial Practices
Worn down by production costs that continue to rise and unpredictable income, small-scale dairymen and women who have been in the business for generations are calling it quits, selling their herds to corporate operations or selling off land for development. Others have tried to adapt by getting big instead of getting out--increasing production through the use of artificial hormones, antibiotics, and highly-concentrated feed, and moving cows off pasture and into filthy and confined factory farms known as Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs). These practices cause major environmental and public health devastation, impacting air, water and land quality22.
Concentrated Animal Feed Operations are usually vegetation-less concrete facilities, holding at least 200 dairy cattle for medium scale operation, and at least 700 for large scale operation23. The largest operations hold over 20,000 dairy cattle24. Tails are "docked" (cut off), a procedure that claims to keep udders clean by preventing fecal bacteria infections on the udders, though no supporting evidence to back this claim is found25. Under this intense strain and close quarters, cows develop and spread disease with ease and in turn are given low daily doses of antibiotics, creating increasing problems with antibiotic-resistant bacteria. In these factory farms, a cow's life expectancy is 3-4 years, exhausted from intense milking and frequent disease. Under normal pasture conditions, a cow can expect to live upwards of 20 years26.
Breeding, Feed and Artificial Hormones
With consumers' and retailers' demand for ever-cheaper dairy products, combined with corporations' pricing power over production, farmers are forced into drastic and unhealthy means to maximize output while reducing costs. This form of corporate dairy production aims to maximize efficiency by increasing milk output from each cow. As a result, the use of breeding, unnatural feed and new technologies, including hormone injections (rBGH), led to a quadrupling of the average amount of milk produced per dairy cow between 1950 and 200527.
With the implementation of artificial insemination in 1938, breeders began to selectively breed the highest milk producing cows28. This tight technological control over the breeding and genetic makeup minimizes diversity of the dairy cow gene pool29. The biggest fear surrounding this breeding technique is the eventual inability to ward off viruses or mutation in the dairy cow's DNA chain, resulting in a rapid spread of disease and possible death. This scenario is very real: the Irish Potato Famine struck because a single fungus found little variation in the established potato crop. With no stronger variant to ward off the fungus, potato crops failed and millions who relied on the potato for nourishment perished30.
In a natural environment, ruminant animals, like cows, subsist on a diet of mixed grasses. For industrial milk facilities aiming to increase production with limited cost and space, pastureland becomes an unnecessary expense. Pasture grasses are replaced with an unnatural diet high in fat and protein-rich grains to increase milk production, and to replace energy lost by producing such large quantities of milk. When fed large amounts of grains like soy and corn (often genetically engineered and heavily sprayed with pesticides)3132, this diet can cause cows to develop digestive problems and diseases that can lead to death. To keep animals alive, a continuous low dose of antibiotics, in conjunction with methods to relieve gas caused by lack of rumen use, is necessary33.
Perhaps the most drastic measure dairies take to boost milk production is the use of artificial hormones such as recombinant Bovine Growth Hormone, rBGH, or rBST (recombinant bovine somatotropin). Approved by the FDA in 1993, and produced by Monsanto under the name Posilac®, rBGH's effects are similar to human growth hormone or steroids. RBGH is said to increase per-cow milk yield by 10-15 percent34. Cows treated with these hormones often develop serious health complications, including lameness, udder infections (mastitis), reproductive problems, including deformed calves, resulting in additional increases in antibiotic injections35.
Dairy products are not labeled when cows are treated with rBGH, but some dairies label products that do not contain rBGH. With pressure from Monsanto36, the dairy industry is attempting to make this labeling practice illegal, claiming the statement is misleading37, that rBGH is FDA approved, and no ill-effects stem from their usage38, even though some studies have raised concern over possible long-term effects of rBGH on humans. Please visit the rBGH page for more information.
New Approaches in Technology: Cloning
Cloning is a process where genetic traits from one plant or animal are copied to create one or more living replicas. In January 2008, the FDA approved the use of cloned meat and milk in cows, goats and pigs stating that "clones and the offspring of any animal cloned are as safe as food we eat every day,"39 though the agency also asked the livestock and dairy industries to uphold a 2003 voluntary ban on the use of cloned animals in any phase of food production. They did not, however, ban or ask for a voluntary ban on the sale of meat and dairy products from the offspring of cloned animals.
FDA scientists state that cloned milk appears the same as non-cloned milk in lab results and is therefore safe for human consumption. Further, the assumption is that because genes are copied not spliced (genetically modified), there is less of a risk for the consumer.
Even with the FDA's five year study into cloned meat and milk safety, many claim the research was done in the interest of industry, not the consumer. The Center for Food Safety notes a lack of peer-reviewed studies, that copied genes don't always display the same internal traits, and that the study only covered young animals, not adults40.
Critics of cloned milk note that scientists are testing for known abnormalities and gene mutations, and unseen and unknown abnormalities could easily be missed41. Animal welfare advocates object to the 2-5% survival rate of cloned cows,42 with many calves developing severe weight problems, both under and over weight, mutations, weakened immune systems and early death. Dolly, the cloned sheep, was euthanized at six (most sheep live to 11 or 12 years of age), and many say she showed symptoms of Progeria, a disease causing rapid aging. Scientists working with Dolly claim she developed a lung condition. Either way, critics say her early death is due to gene mutations as a result of cloning.
The FDA has not approved any labeling on milk or meat that would specify that the products are from cloned animals. Please read our cloning page for more information.
Rise of Organic Dairy
Concern over industrial dairy production has contributed to the rise of the organic dairy industry. While organic milk makes up only 1% of the dairy market, demand has increased 477% between 1997 and 200343. Milk products labeled "Certified Organic" or "USDA Organic" ensure consumers that the product meets U.S. Department of Agriculture organic standards, and are certified by a USDA-accredited private certification organization.
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Cheese wheels at the Rogue Creamery
and Dairy in Central Point, OR. |
In October 2002, the production and marketing of organic food came under regulation of the USDA's National Organic Program, thus establishing national standards for organic products, including dairy. Eligibility for the organic seal requires that dairy farmers provide outdoor "access" for their animals, do not treat herds with added growth hormones or antibiotics, and do not use feed treated with synthetic pesticides or that is genetically modified44. "Access" to outdoors has become a controversial phrase. Some farmers confine their animals and only give them access through a door or a window - yet don't allow the animals to go out. This is still considered organic, yet is not sustainable. The larger the dairy operation, the less likely proper animal welfare conditions are met.
Consumers should look for dairy brands where cows are raised humanely on pasture without the overuse of antibiotics or any added hormones, and purchase from small local sustainable producers when available. Please read our organic page for more information.
Raw Milk
Some consumers are turning to raw milk products from goats and cows, some out of concern over conventional dairy, others for health and nutrition reasons. By definition, raw milk is not pasteurized or homogenized. It is thought to contain higher amounts of healthy vitamins, minerals, enzymes and good bacteria.
Stemming from poor health and safety codes in the early 20th century, raw milk developed a bad reputation that continues to this day. Currently, the sale of raw milk products is still illegal.
What You Can Do
Luckily, there are still small dairy farms throughout the US that raise their cows on pasture and produce high-quality milk and dairy products without sacrificing human and environmental well-being.
- Visit the Eat Well Guide to find a dairy farm near you that produces sustainable milk, cheese, butter and other dairy products.
- Visit Sustainable Table and Food & Water Watch's rBGH-free dairy map to find a state by state listing of dairy products without rBGH.
- Visit our Questions to Ask page for questions to ask a dairy farmer. Take them to your local farmers market to find the best dairy in your area.
- When you're shopping in a conventional grocery store and can't find local sustainable food, look for the USDA certified organic label, and buy milk and other dairy products that are free from antibiotics, added hormones and chemical pesticides.
Did You Know?
- 2006 figures indicate only 1% of all dairy products sold in the US are certified organic, and organic milk sales are growing by about 25% each year45.
- The countries that consume the most dairy products are also the countries with the most wealth, including the US, the EU, Australia, New Zealand and Japan46.
- Swiss-owned Nestle is the world's largest Dairy company, with nearly $19 billion in revenues in 200547.
For More Information
Page last updated September 2009
Related information:
Cloning
Factory Farming
Feed
Genetic Engineering
Hormones
Organic
Pasture-Raised
Pesticides
rBGH & rBST
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